芯片制造--半导体工艺制程实用教程

本书是一本介绍半导体集成电路和器件制造技术的专业书籍，在半导体领域享有很高的声誉。本书的范围包括半导体工艺的每个阶段：从原材料的制备到封装、测试和成品运输，以及传统的和现代的工艺。全书提供了详细的插图和实例，每章包含回顾总结和习题，并辅以丰富的术语表。第六版修订了微芯片制造领域的新进展，讨论了用于图形化、掺杂和薄膜步骤的先进工艺和尖端技术，使隐含在复杂的现代半导体制造材料和工艺中的物理、化学和电子的基础知识更易理解。

本书的主要特点是避开了复杂的数学问题介绍工艺技术内容；加入了半导体业界的新成果，可以使读者了解工艺技术发展的趋势。

1 The Semiconductor Industry 1

Introduction 1

Birth of an Industry 1

The Solid-State Era 3

Integrated Circuits (ICs) 4

Process and Product Trends 5

Moore’s Law 6

Decreasing Feature Size 6

Increasing Chip and Wafer Size 8

Reduction in Defect Density 9

Increase in Interconnection Levels 10

The Semiconductor Industry Association Roadmap 10

Chip Cost 11

Industry Organization 11

Stages of Manufacturing 12

Six Decades of Advances in Microchip Fabrication Processes 14

The Nano Era 16

Review Topics 17

References 17

2 Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals 19

Introduction 19

Atomic Structure 19

The Bohr Atom 19

The Periodic Table of the Elements 20

Electrical Conduction 23

Conductors 23

Dielectrics and Capacitors 23

Resistors 24

Intrinsic Semiconductors 24

Doped Semiconductors 25

Electron and Hole Conduction 26

Carrier Mobility 28

Semiconductor Production Materials 29

Germanium and Silicon 29

Semiconducting Compounds 29

Silicon Germanium 31

Engineered Substrates 31

Ferroelectric Materials 31

Diamond Semiconductors 32

Process Chemicals 32

Molecules, Compounds, and Mixtures 32

Ions 33

States of Matter 34

Solids, Liquids, and Gases 34

Plasma State 34

Properties of Matter 34

Temperature 34

Density, Specic Gravity, and Vapor Density 35

Pressure and Vacuum 36

Acids, Alkalis, and Solvents 37

Acids and Alkalis 37

Solvents 38

Chemical Purity and Cleanliness 38

Safety Issues 38

The Material Safety Data Sheet 39

Review Topics 39

References 39

3 Crystal Growth and Silicon Wafer Preparation 41

Introduction 41

Semiconductor Silicon Preparation 41

Silicon Wafer Preparation Stages 42

Crystalline Materials 42

Unit Cells 43

Poly and Single Crystals 43

Crystal Orientation 44

Crystal Growth 45

Czochralski Method 45

Liquid-Encapsulated Czochralski 47

Float Zone 47

Crystal and Wafer Quality 49

Point Defects 49

Dislocations 50

Growth Defects 50

Wafer Preparation 51

End Cropping 51

Diameter Grinding 51

Crystal Orientation, Conductivity, and Resistivity Check 51

Grinding Orientation Indicators 52

Wafer Slicing 53

Wafer Marking 54

Rough Polish 54

Chemical Mechanical Polishing 55

Backside Processing 55

Double-Sided Polishing 56

Edge Grinding and Polishing 56

Wafer Evaluation 56

Oxidation 57

Packaging 57

Wafer Types and Uses 57

Reclaim Wafers 57

Engineered Wafers (Substrates) 57

Review Topics 58

References 58

4 Overview of Wafer Fabrication and Packaging 59

Introduction 59

Goal of Wafer Fabrication 59

Wafer Terminology 59

Chip Terminology 61

Basic Wafer-Fabrication Operations 63

Layering 63

Patterning 64

Circuit Design 66

Reticle and Masks 68

Doping 69

Heat Treatments 69

Example Fabrication Process 72

Wafer Sort 74

Packaging 75

Summary 75

Review Topics 76

References 76

5 Contamination Control 77

Introduction 77

The Problem 77

Contamination-Caused Problems 80

Contamination Sources 81

General Sources 81

Air 81

Clean Air Strategies 82

Cleanroom Workstation Strategy 83

Tunnel or Bay Concept 85

Micro- and Mini-Environments 86

Temperature, Humidity, and Smog 87

Cleanroom Construction 88

Construction Materials 88

Cleanroom Elements 89

Personnel-Generated Contamination 93

Process Water 94

Process Chemicals 96

Equipment 99

Cleanroom Materials and Supplies 99

Cleanroom Maintenance 100

Wafer-Surface Cleaning 100

Particulate Removal 102

Wafer Scrubbers 102

High-Pressure Water Cleaning 103

Organic Residues 103

Inorganic Residues 103

Chemical-Cleaning Solutions 104

General Chemical Cleaning 104

Oxide Layer Removal 105

Room Temperature and Ozonated Chemistries 106

Water Rinsing 108

Drying Techniques 110

Contamination Detection 112

Review Topics 112

References 113

6 Productivity and Process Yields 115

Overview 115

Yield Measurement Points 115

Accumulative Wafer-Fabrication Yield 116

Wafer-Fabrication Yield Limiters 117

Number of Process Steps 118

Wafer Breakage and Warping 118

Process Variation 119

Mask Defects 120

Wafer-Sort Yield Factors 120

Wafer Diameter and Edge Die 121

Wafer Diameter and Die Size 122

Wafer Diameter and Crystal Defects 122

Wafer Diameter and Process Variations 123

Die Area and Defect Density 124

Circuit Density and Defect Density 125

Number of Process Steps 125

Feature Size and Defect Size 125

Process Cycle Time 125

Wafer-Sort Yield Formulas 125

Assembly and Final Test Yields 128

Overall Process Yields 128

Review Topics 129

References 130

7 Oxidation 131

Introduction 131

Silicon Dioxide Layer Uses 131

Surface Passivation 131

Doping Barrier 132

Surface Dielectric 132

Device Dielectric (MOS Gates) 133

Device Oxide Thicknesses 134

Thermal Oxidation Mechanisms 134

Influences on the Oxidation Rate 137

Thermal Oxidation Methods 140

Horizontal Tube Furnaces 140

Temperature Control System 141

Source Cabinet 143

Vertical Tube Furnaces 143

Rapid Thermal Processing 146

High-Pressure Oxidation 149

Oxidant Sources 151

Oxidation Processes 154

Preoxidation Wafer Cleaning 154

Postoxidation Evaluation 155

Surface Inspection 156

Oxide Thickness 156

Oxide and Furnace Cleanliness 156

Thermal Nitridation 156

Review Topics 157

References 157

8 The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Surface Preparation to Exposure 161

Introduction 161

Overview of the Photomasking Process 162

Ten-Step Process 165

Basic Photoresist Chemistry 167

Photoresist 167

Photoresist Performance Factors 169

Resolution Capability 169

Adhesion Capability 170

Process Latitude 171

Pinholes 172

Particle and Contamination Levels 173

Step Coverage 173

Thermal Flow 173

Comparison of Positive and Negative Resists 173

Physical Properties of Photoresists 175

Solids Content 175

Viscosity 175

Surface Tension 176

Index of Refraction 176

Storage and Control of Photoresists 176

Light and Heat Sensitivity 176

Viscosity Sensitivity 177

Shelf Life 177

Cleanliness 177

Photomasking Processes—Surface Preparation to Exposure 178

Surface Preparation 178

Particle Removal 178

Dehydration Baking 178

Wafer Priming 179

Spin Priming 180

Vapor Priming 180

Photoresist Application (Spinning) 181

The Static Dispense Spin Process 181

Dynamic Dispense 183

Moving-Arm Dispensing 183

Manual Spinners 183

Automatic Spinners 184

Edge Bead Removal 185

Backside Coating 185

Soft Bake 185

Convection Ovens 186

Manual Hot Plates 187

In-Line, Single-Wafer Hot Plates 187

Moving-Belt Hot Plates 187

Moving-Belt Infrared Ovens 188

Microwave Baking 188

Vacuum Baking 188

Alignment and Exposure 189

Alignment and Exposure Systems 189

Exposure Sources 191

Alignment Criteria 191

Aligner Types 193

Postexposure Bake 196

Advanced Lithography 198

Review Topics 198

References 198

9 The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Developing to Final Inspection 201

Introduction 201

Development 201

Positive Resist Development 201

Negative Resist Development 203

Wet Development Processes 203

Dry (or Plasma) Development 206

Hard Bake 207

Hard-Bake Methods 207

Hard-Bake Process 207

Develop Inspect 208

Develop Inspect Reject Categories 209

Develop Inspect Methods 209

Causes for Rejecting at the Develop Inspection Stage 211

Etch 212

Wet Etching 212

Etch Goals and Issues 212

Incomplete Etch 212

Overetch and Undercutting 213

Selectivity 214

Wet-Spray Etching 214

Silicon Wet Etching 214

Silicon Dioxide Wet Etching 215

Aluminum-Film Wet Etching 216

Deposited-Oxide Wet Etching 216

Silicon Nitride Wet Etching 216

Vapor Etching 217

Dry Etch 217

Plasma Etching 218

Etch Rate 220

Radiation Damage 220

Selectivity 220

Ion-Beam Etching 222

Reactive Ion Etching 222

Resist Effects in Dry Etching 223

Resist Stripping 223

Wet Chemical Stripping of Nonmetallized Surfaces 224

Wet Chemical Stripping of Metallized Surfaces 225

Dry Stripping 225

Post–Ion Implant and Plasma Etch Stripping 226

New Stripping Challenges 226

Final Inspection 227

Mask Making 227

Summary 229

Review Topics 229

References 230

10 Next Generation Lithography 233

Introduction 233

Challenges of Next Generation Lithography 233

High-Pressure Mercury Lamp Sources 235

Excimer Lasers 236

Extreme Ultraviolet 236

X-Rays 237

Electron Beam or Direct Writing 238

Numerical Aperture of a Lens 240

Other Exposure Issues 241

Variable Numerical Aperture Lenses 242

Immersion Exposure System 242

Amplified Resist 242

Contrast Effects 243

Other Resolution Challenges and Solutions 244

Off-Axis Illumination 245

Lens Issues and Reection Systems 245

Phase-Shift Masks 245

Optical Proximity Corrected or Optical Process Correction 245

Annular-Ring Illumination 246

Pellicles 247

Surface Problems 248

Resist Light Scattering 248

Subsurface Reectivity 248

Antireective Coatings 249

Standing Waves 249

Planarization 251

Photoresist Process Advances 252

Multilayer Resist or Surface Imaging 252

Silylation or DESIRE Process 254

Polyimide Planarization Layers 255

Etchback Planarization 256

Dual-Damascene Process 256

Chemical Mechanical Polishing 256

Slurry 259

Polishing Rates 259

Planarity 260

Post-CMP Clean 261

CMP Tools 261

CMP Summary 262

Reow 262

Image Reversal 262

Contrast Enhancement Layers 262

Dyed Resists 264

Improving Etch Denition 264

Lift-Off Process 264

Self-Aligned Structures 264

Etch Prole Control 266

Review Topics 266

References 266

11 Doping 269

Introduction 269

The Diffusion Concept 269

Formation of a Doped Region and Junction 271

The N-P Junction 272

Doping Process Goals 273

Graphical Representation of Junctions 273

Concentration versus Depth Graphs 273

Lateral Diffusion 273

Same-Type Doping 275

Diffusion Process Steps 275

Deposition 275

Dopant Sources 278

Drive-In Oxidation 280

Oxidation Effects 281

Introduction to Ion Implantation 281

Concept of Ion Implantation 283

Ion-Implantation System 284

Implant Species Sources 284

Ionization Chamber 284

Mass Analyzing or Ion Selection 284

Acceleration Tube 286

Wafer Charging 286

Beam Focus 287

Neutral Beam Trap 287

Beam Scanning 287

End Station and Target Chamber 289

Ion-Implant Masks 290

Dopant Concentration in Implanted Regions 291

Crystal Damage 292

Annealing and Dopant Activation 292

Channeling 293

Evaluation of Implanted Layers 294

Uses of Ion Implantation 295

The Future of Doping 297

Review Topics 297

References 298

12 Layer Deposition 299

Introduction 299

Film Parameters 301

Chemical Vapor Deposition Basics 302

Basic CVD System Components 303

CVD Process Steps 305

CVD System Types 305

Atmospheric-Pressure CVD Systems 306

Horizontal-Tube Induction-Heated APCVD 306

Barrel Radiant-Induction-Heated APCVD 307

Pancake Induction-Heated APCVD 307

Continuous Conduction-Heated APCVD 308

Horizontal Conduction-Heated APCVD 309

Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 309

Horizontal Conduction-Convection-Heated LPCVD 309

Ultra-High Vacuum CVD 310

Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD) 310

High-Density Plasma CVD 312

Atomic Layer Deposition 313

Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 315

Molecular Beam Epitaxy 315

Metalorganic CVD 317

Deposited Films 318

Deposited Semiconductors 318 2100433B